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How long does the launch take? Does the error pop up quickly?

I would suggest creating a support case with this. Would be very helpful to add CDF Traces to the ticket as well so we can see what's going on here. If possible, also add crash dumps for the process if you have them (support can also help with collecting these)

Takes about 10 seconds, and happens before loading FSLogix Profile and other stuff. The customer reverted the image to an old version from November and this seems to work. We'll now make all changes step by step and hopefully see what exactly breaks the image.